Mary was born on 8 December 1542, at Linlithgow Palace, Scotland. She was the daughter of King James V of Scotland and his French second wife, Marie of Guise. On 14 December, six days after her birth, Mary became Queen of Scotland after the death of her father. As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne, Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult. The Protestant Earl of Arran became the regent until 1554, when Mary's mother managed to remove and succeed him.
King Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose an union between the young Queen Mary and his own son, Edward. On 1 July 1543, when Mary was just 6 months old, the Treaty of Greenwich was signed: it promised that at the age of 10 Mary would marry Edward and move to England, where Henry VIII could oversee her upbringing. However, shortly before Mary's coronation (9 September 1543), Scottish merchants headed for France were arrested by Henry VIII, and their goods impounded. The arrests caused anger in Scotland and the Treaty of Greenwich was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland.
The French king, Henry II, proposed to unite France and Scotland by marrying Mary and his son, the Dauphin Francis. On the promise of French military help and a French dukedom, the Earl of Arran agreed.
King Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose an union between the young Queen Mary and his own son, Edward. On 1 July 1543, when Mary was just 6 months old, the Treaty of Greenwich was signed: it promised that at the age of 10 Mary would marry Edward and move to England, where Henry VIII could oversee her upbringing. However, shortly before Mary's coronation (9 September 1543), Scottish merchants headed for France were arrested by Henry VIII, and their goods impounded. The arrests caused anger in Scotland and the Treaty of Greenwich was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland.
The French king, Henry II, proposed to unite France and Scotland by marrying Mary and his son, the Dauphin Francis. On the promise of French military help and a French dukedom, the Earl of Arran agreed.
Mary was 5 years old when she was sent to France; she would spend the next 13 years at the French court. Vivacious, beautiful and clever, Mary had a promising childhood: she learned to play lute and virginals, was competent in prose, poetry, horsemanship, falconry and needlework, and was taught French, Italian, Spanish and Greek, in addition of her native Scots. Mary was eloquent and especially tall by 16th century standards (1.80m!!!), while Henry's son was abnormally short and stuttered.
On 4 April 1558, Mary signed a secret agreement bequeathing Scotland and her claim to England to the French crown if she died without issue. Twenty days later, she married the Dauphin at Notre Dame de Paris.
In November 1558, Mary I of England was succeeded by her only surviving sibling, the Protestant Elizabeth I. Yet, in the eyes of many Catholics, Elizabeth was illegitimate, and Mary Stuart, as the senior descendant of Henry VIII's eldest sister Margaret, was the rightful queen of England. Mary's claim to the English throne was a perennial sticking point between her and Elizabeth.
On 4 April 1558, Mary signed a secret agreement bequeathing Scotland and her claim to England to the French crown if she died without issue. Twenty days later, she married the Dauphin at Notre Dame de Paris.
In November 1558, Mary I of England was succeeded by her only surviving sibling, the Protestant Elizabeth I. Yet, in the eyes of many Catholics, Elizabeth was illegitimate, and Mary Stuart, as the senior descendant of Henry VIII's eldest sister Margaret, was the rightful queen of England. Mary's claim to the English throne was a perennial sticking point between her and Elizabeth.
When Henry II died on 10 July 1559, Francis (now 15 years old) and Mary (now 16 years old) became the new King and Queen of France.
On 11 June 1560, Mary of Guise died and the question of future Franco-Scots relations was a pressing one. Under the Treaty of Edinburgh (signed by Mary's representatives) on 6 July 1560, France and England undertook to withdraw troops from Scotland and France recognised Elizabeth's right to rule England. However, Mary refused to ratify the treaty.
King Francis II of France died on 5 December 1560, of a middle ear infection that led to an abscess in his brain. Mary was grief-stricken. Nine months later, she returned to Scotland, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561. As a devout Catholic, Mary was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects, as well as by the Queen of England. Scotland was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions, and Mary's illegitimate brother (the Earl of Moray) was a leader of the Protestants. To the disappointment of the Catholic party, however, Mary tolerated the newly established Protestant ascendancy, and kept Lord Moray as her chief advisor.
Mary turned her attention to finding a new husband. She met her English-born cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley in February 1561. They met next on 17 February 1565, after which Mary fell in love with the long lad (he was over 1.80m). They married at Holyrood Palace on 29 July 1565. This union infuriated Elizabeth I, as she felt threatened and thought the marriage should have not gone ahead without her permission, as Darnley was both her cousin and an English subject.
On 11 June 1560, Mary of Guise died and the question of future Franco-Scots relations was a pressing one. Under the Treaty of Edinburgh (signed by Mary's representatives) on 6 July 1560, France and England undertook to withdraw troops from Scotland and France recognised Elizabeth's right to rule England. However, Mary refused to ratify the treaty.
King Francis II of France died on 5 December 1560, of a middle ear infection that led to an abscess in his brain. Mary was grief-stricken. Nine months later, she returned to Scotland, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561. As a devout Catholic, Mary was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects, as well as by the Queen of England. Scotland was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions, and Mary's illegitimate brother (the Earl of Moray) was a leader of the Protestants. To the disappointment of the Catholic party, however, Mary tolerated the newly established Protestant ascendancy, and kept Lord Moray as her chief advisor.
Mary turned her attention to finding a new husband. She met her English-born cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley in February 1561. They met next on 17 February 1565, after which Mary fell in love with the long lad (he was over 1.80m). They married at Holyrood Palace on 29 July 1565. This union infuriated Elizabeth I, as she felt threatened and thought the marriage should have not gone ahead without her permission, as Darnley was both her cousin and an English subject.
Before long, Darnley grew arrogant. Not content with his position as King consort, he demanded the Crown Matrimonial, which would have made him a co-sovereign of Scotland, with the right to keep the Scottish throne for himself if he outlived his wife. Mary refused it and the marriage grew strained. However, they conceived by October 1565.
The child, James, was born on 19 June 1566, in Edinburgh Castle. At the end of November 1566, Mary and leading nobles held a meeting to discuss the problem of Darnley. Divorce was discussed, but then a bond was probably sworn between the lords present to remove Darnley by other means.
The child, James, was born on 19 June 1566, in Edinburgh Castle. At the end of November 1566, Mary and leading nobles held a meeting to discuss the problem of Darnley. Divorce was discussed, but then a bond was probably sworn between the lords present to remove Darnley by other means.
In late January 1567, Mary prompted her husband to return to Edinburgh. She visited him daily, so it appeared a reconciliation was in progress. On the night of 9-10 February, Mary visited her husband in the early evening. In the early hours of the morning, an explosion devastated Kirk o' Field and Darnley was found dead in the garden, apparently smothered. By the end of February, the Earl of Bothwell was generally believed to be guilty of Darnley's assassination. However, he was acquitted; a week later, he managed to convince more than two dozen lords and bishops to agree to support his aim to marry the Queen.
In April 1567, Mary visited her son for the last time. On her way back to Edinburgh, she was abducted (willingly or not) by Bothwell. He took her to Dunbar Castle, where he may have raped her. On 6 May, they returned to Edinburgh and, on 15 May, they were married according to Protestant rites. The marriage proved to be deeply unpopular and Mary became hopeless. The Scottish peers turned against them and there was a confrontation at Carberry Hill on 15 June. There was no battle: Bothwell was given safe passage and Mary was taken to Edinburgh, where the crowds denounced her as an adulteress and a murderer. On 24 July, Mary was forced to abdicate in favour of her son James. Bothwell was driven into exile.
Mary escaped Scotland and fled to England where she, apparently, expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne. However, Elizabeth was cautious, ordering an enquiry into the conduct of the Scottish peers and the question of whether Mary was guilty of her husband's murder.
In April 1567, Mary visited her son for the last time. On her way back to Edinburgh, she was abducted (willingly or not) by Bothwell. He took her to Dunbar Castle, where he may have raped her. On 6 May, they returned to Edinburgh and, on 15 May, they were married according to Protestant rites. The marriage proved to be deeply unpopular and Mary became hopeless. The Scottish peers turned against them and there was a confrontation at Carberry Hill on 15 June. There was no battle: Bothwell was given safe passage and Mary was taken to Edinburgh, where the crowds denounced her as an adulteress and a murderer. On 24 July, Mary was forced to abdicate in favour of her son James. Bothwell was driven into exile.
Mary escaped Scotland and fled to England where she, apparently, expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne. However, Elizabeth was cautious, ordering an enquiry into the conduct of the Scottish peers and the question of whether Mary was guilty of her husband's murder.
On 26 January 1569, Mary was moved to Tutbury Castle and placed in the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury and his formidable wife, Bess of Hardwick. Elizabeth considered Mary's designs on the English throne to be a serious threat, so confined her to Shrewsbury's properties, all located in the interior of England. She was occasionally allowed outside under strict supervision, and spent much of her time doing embroidery. Her health declined and, by the 1580s, she had severe rheumatism.
On 11 August 1586, after being implicated in the Babington Plot, Mary was arrested while out riding and taken to Tixhall. In a successful attempt to entrap her, she was led into thinking her letters were secure, while in reality, they were being deciphered and read. From these letters, it is clear that Mary sanctioned the attempted assassination of Elizabeth. She was moved to Fotheringhay Castle and, in October, she was put on trial for treason. Spirited in her defence, Mary denied the charges and told her triers Look to your consciences and remember that the theatre of the world is wider than the kingdom of England. She protested that she was denied the opportunity to review the evidence, that her papers were taken from her, that she was denied access to legal counsel and that as a foreign anointed queen, she had never been an English subject and thus could not be convicted of treason.
On 11 August 1586, after being implicated in the Babington Plot, Mary was arrested while out riding and taken to Tixhall. In a successful attempt to entrap her, she was led into thinking her letters were secure, while in reality, they were being deciphered and read. From these letters, it is clear that Mary sanctioned the attempted assassination of Elizabeth. She was moved to Fotheringhay Castle and, in October, she was put on trial for treason. Spirited in her defence, Mary denied the charges and told her triers Look to your consciences and remember that the theatre of the world is wider than the kingdom of England. She protested that she was denied the opportunity to review the evidence, that her papers were taken from her, that she was denied access to legal counsel and that as a foreign anointed queen, she had never been an English subject and thus could not be convicted of treason.
Mary was convicted on 25 October and sentenced to death. Despite this, Elizabeth hesitated to order her execution. On 1 February 1587, Elizabeth finally signed the death warrant.
At Fotheringhay, on the evening of 7 February 1587, Mary was told that she was to be executed the next morning. She spent her last hours in prayer, distributing her belongings, and writing her will and a letter to the King of France. A scaffold was erected in the Great Hall of the castle. The executioners knelt before her and asked forgiveness. She replied, I forgive you with all my heart, for now, I hope, you shall make an end of all my troubles. She was blindfolded, knelt down in the cushion in front of the block, on which she positioned her head and stretched out her arms. Her last words were, In manus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum.
At Fotheringhay, on the evening of 7 February 1587, Mary was told that she was to be executed the next morning. She spent her last hours in prayer, distributing her belongings, and writing her will and a letter to the King of France. A scaffold was erected in the Great Hall of the castle. The executioners knelt before her and asked forgiveness. She replied, I forgive you with all my heart, for now, I hope, you shall make an end of all my troubles. She was blindfolded, knelt down in the cushion in front of the block, on which she positioned her head and stretched out her arms. Her last words were, In manus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum.
Mary was not beheaded with a single strike. The first blow missed her neck and struck the back of her head. The second blow severed the neck, except for a small bit of sinew, which the executioner cut through using the axe. Afterward, he held her head aloft. At that moment, the auburn tresses in his hand turned out to be a wig, and the head fell to the ground, revealing that Mary had very short, grey hair. A small dog owned by the queen is said to have been hiding among her skirts, unseen. Following the beheading, it refused to be parted with Mary and was covered in her blood.
She was 44 years old at the time of her death. Mary's request to be buried in France was refused by Elizabeth.
She was 44 years old at the time of her death. Mary's request to be buried in France was refused by Elizabeth.
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Mary, Queen of Scots (aged 13)
François Clouet
1555/9
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