Caligula

Gaius Julius Caesar (named in honour of his famous relative) was born in Antium on 31 August 12. He was son of Germanicus and his wife, Agrippina Major; he had two older brothers (Nero and Drusus) and three younger sisters (Agrippina Minor, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla).

When he was just 2 or 3 years old, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus, on his campaigns in the north of Germania. The soldiers were amused that the boy was dressed in a miniature soldier’s outfit, including boots and armour. He was given the nickname Caligula, meaning little soldier’s boot, after the small boots he wore (caligae). However, he did not like his nickname.

After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until her relationship with Emperor Tiberius deteriorated. Agrippina and Caligula’s brother, Nero, were banished in 29 for treason. Caligula was then sent to live with his great-grandmother, Livia. After her death, he went to live with his grandmother, Antonia Minor. In 30, his brother Drusus was imprisoned on charges of treason, and his brother Nero died in exile. After the banishment of his mother and brothers, Caligula and his sisters were nothing more than Tiberius’ prisoners.

In 31, Caligula was sent to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri, where he lived for 6 years. To the surprise of many, Caligula was spared by Tiberius. According to historians, Caligula was an excellent actor and, recognising danger, hid all his resentment towards Tiberius.

In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship, which he held until his rise to emperor. He was briefly married to Junia Claudilla, but she died in childbirth in 34. Caligula spent time befriending the Praetorian prefect Naevius Sutorius Macro, an important ally. In 35, Caligula was named heir to Tiberius’ estate, along with Tiberius Gemellus.

When Tiberius died on 16 March 37, his estate and titles were left to Caligula and Gemellus. Although Tiberius was 77, some historians conjecture that he was murdered. Tacitus says that Macro smothered him with a pillow to hasten Caligula’s accession. Backed by Macro, Caligula had Tiberius will nullified regarding Gemellus on grounds of insanity. 

Caligula accepted the powers of the principate as conferred by the Senate and entered Rome amid a crowd that hailed him as our baby and our star. Caligula is described as the first emperor who was admired by everyone in all the world, from the rising to the setting sun. He was loved by many for being the son of the popular Germanicus, and because he was not Tiberius. 

Caligula’s first acts were said to be generous in spirit but political in nature. To gain support, he granted bonuses to the military. He destroyed Tiberius’ treason papers, declared that treason trials were a thing of the past, and recalled the exiled. He helped those who had been harmed by the tax system, banished certain sexual deviants and put on lavish games for the public.

In October 37, Caligula fell ill, or perhaps was poisoned. He soon recovered, but many believed that the illness turned the young emperor toward the diabolical – he started to kill or exile those close to him or whom he thought as a serious threat. He had his cousin Gemellus executed, an act which revolted their grandmother, Antonia Minor. She is said to have committed suicide, although Suetonius hints that Caligula killed her. He had his father-in-law, Marcus Junius Silanus, and his brother-in-law, Marcus Lepidus, executed as well. His uncle Claudius was spared only because Caligula preferred to keep him as a laughing stock. His favourite sister, Julia Drusilla, died in 38; his two other sisters, Livilla and Agrippina Minor, were exiled. He hated being grandson of Marcus Agrippa, so he slandered Augustus by repeating a falsehood that his mother was the daughter of Augustus and his daughter, Julia Major.

In 38, Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform. He published the accounts of public funds, he aided those who lost property in fires, abolished certain taxes and gave out prizes to the public at gymnastic events. Perhaps more significantly, he restored the practice of democratic elections. During the same year, though, Caligula was criticised for executing people without full trials and for forcing Macro to commit suicide.

In 38 and 39, a financial crisis emerged. Caligula’s political payment for support, generosity, and extravagance had exhausted the state’s treasury. Historians state that Caligula had began falsely accusing, fining and even killing individuals for seizing their estates. To gain funds, Caligula asked the public to lend the state money. He levied taxes on lawsuits, prostitution and weddings. He also began auctioning the lives of gladiators at shows. Wills that left items to Tiberius were reinterpreted to leave the items to Caligula instead. Centurions who had acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over spoils to the state. A brief famine of unknown extent occurred, perhaps caused by this financial crisis, but Suetonius claims it resulted from Caligula’s seizure of public carriages; according to Seneca, grain imports were disturbed because Caligula repurposed grain boats for a pontoon bridge.

Despite financial difficulties, Caligula embarked on several construction projects during his reign. Some were for the public good, though others were for himself. His improvements to the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily allowed increase grain imports from Egypt. He completed the Temple of Augustus, the Theatre of Pompey, and began the amphitheatre beside the Saepta. He also began the aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which were described as engineering marvels.

In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching over for 2 miles. Caligula, who could not swim, then proceeded to ride his favourite horse, Incitatus, across the bridge wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great. Caligula had two ships constructed for himself (recovered from the bottom of Lake Nemi around 1930). The smaller ship was designed as a temple to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace with marble flooring and plumbing. 

In 39, relations between Caligula and the Senate deteriorated; the subject of the disagreement is unknown. Caligula reviewed Tiberius’ treason trials and decided that many senators were not trustworthy. He ordered a new set of investigations and trials, replaced the consul and had 7 senators put to death.

In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania, and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia – even challenging Neptune in his campaign. He also began implementing very controversial policies that introduced religion into his political role. Caligula began appearing in public dressed as Hercules, Mercury, Venus and Apollo. Reportedly, he began referring to himself as a god when meeting with politicians and he was referred to as Jupiter on occasion in public documents. Caligula had the heads removed from several statues of gods and replaced them with his own. It is said that he wished to be worshipped as Neos Helios (the new sun).

Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories. Aiding them in his actions was his good friend, Herod Agrippa. The cause was complicated, involving the spreading of the Greek culture, Roman law and the rights of the Jews in the Empire.

Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger, contemporaries of Caligula, describe him as an insane emperor who was self-absorbed, angry, killed on a whim and indulged in too much spending and sex. He was accused of sleeping with married women and bragging about it, killing for mere amusement, causing starvation, and wanting a statue of himself erected in the Temple of Jerusalem. The later sources of Cassius Dio and Suetonius provide additional tales of insanity. They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters and say he prostituted them to other men. They state that he sent troops in illogical military exercises, turned the palace into a brothel and, most famously, promised to make his horse, Incitatus, a consul (and appointed him priest!).

Caligula’s actions as emperor were described as especially harsh to the Senate, the nobility and the equestrians. These led to several failed conspiracies. Eventually, officers within the Praetorian guard, led by Cassius Chaerea, were successful.

The situation escalated when, in 40, Caligula announced he wanted to leave Rome and move to Alexandria, where he hoped to be worshipped as a living god. The prospect of Rome losing its emperor was the final straw for many, and Chaerea convinced his fellow conspirators to put their plan into action.

On 22 January 41, Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe during a series of games and dramatics held for the Divine Augustus. Chaerea stabbed Caligula first, followed by several conspirators. Suetonius records that Caligula’s death resembled that of Julius Caesar. By the time Caligula’s loyal Germanic guard responded, he was already dead.

The Senate attempted to use Caligula’s death as an opportunity to restore the Republic. However, the military remained loyal to the idea of imperial monarchy and Caligula’s uncle Claudius, became emperor after securing the support of the Praetorian guard.

Caligula was buried within the Mausoleum of Augustus; in 410, during the Sack of Rome, the ashes in the tomb were scattered.

Caligula

Virginia Museum of Fine Arts